How we learn
Introduction: The Three Representational Modes

Self, Metacognition, Cognition, Knowledge Systems

Learning Concept Map
Learning Concept Map

For more information on learning, click on the concept map or use the listing below.

Learning Essays

ISD Concept Map

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Linguistic Learning Mode in Instructional Design

The linguistic mode provides the way to the most accurate method of learning, hence the reason for its impact upon the education and training world. Listed below are several ways for increasing linguistic retention.

Note Taking

Note taking has a positive impact on this mode since it involves the learners in the subject matter that is transpiring in class, it cause us to reflect on the subject and then record our thoughts, it helps us in interpreting the subject matter, and it provides an additional linguistic reinforcer. You can help them with the note taking by providing rough outlines and fill-in-the-blanks. But do not just rely on one method. Vary the methods to fit the subject — e.g. give them a rough draft, then a fill-in-the-blank, then a mapping outline.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's involvement or engagement (which includes note-taking) in the learning process, the greater the knowledge acquisition. Marzano (1998) reported that note taking techniques have an overall effect size of .99, indicating a percentile gain of 34 points. These techniques require students to generate personal linguistic representations of the information being presented.

Cueing

Cueing provides a means for "abstract propositions", which can then be expounded into the long-term memory network. Cues can be thought of as a brief preview of a skill, action, or information that will later be presented in the learning platform. For example, it can be as simple as saying, "I wonder what will happen if I push this button ?" This simple statement can raise the learner's curiosity levels so that the importance of pushing that button remains in their memory. Marzano (1998, p.89) reported an effect size of 1.13, which indicates that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points when cueing is used.

Another example is using an engaging slide that captures the learners' attention. Most of us have sat through a presentation where the presenter read the slides word for words, which can be quite ineffective and annoying. This is because our reading speed does not match our listening speed; hence, they confuse instead of reinforcing each other. In addition, it is too repetitive. The better method is to use the slides as cues, such as a graphic or picture that reinforces the instructor's message.

layering or scaffolding the instruction
Effective instructors recognize the concept of presenting information in layers as a miniature scaffold (building upon a framework)

Modeling

Models (as in people, drawings, or three-dimensional) will also help to reinforce both the declarative and procedural network by giving them a visual cue. Marzano (1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 1.48 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 43 percentile points) when graphic representations are used to support linguistic learning modes.

modeling

The combined use of drawings, flowcharts, mappings, instructions, etc. can be combined to produce knowledge maps, rather than linear readings.

Active Learning

Activities (manipulatives) engage learners. While we can learn the basics of such activities as football, chess, or leading by observing or hearing about it, we do not really understand it until we actually do it. Also, placing the learners in small discussion groups allows them to not only receive and express linguistic information, but to also manipulate it in various forms to gain a full understanding of it.

Cooperative learning is very effective due to give and take of various linguistic forms. It involves cooperation, in that learners work in small groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the trainer who monitors the groups. On the other side is "collaborative learning" that is a more radical departure in that it involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer.

In addition, the use of good questioning techniques, fishbowls, case studies, etc., gives the same benefits as groups.

Pascarella & Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's involvement or engagement is in the learning process, the greater the knowledge acquisition.

Marzano 1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 0.89 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 31 percentile points) when manipulatives (engaging the learners) are used. In addition, he reported (p.93) an effect size of 1.14 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points) when experimental learning is used and an effect size of .54 (a percentile gain of 21 points) by using problem solving processes.

See Active Learning for more information and references

References

Marzano, Robert J. (1998). A Theory-Based Meta-Analysis of Research on Instruction. Mid-continent Aurora, Colorado: Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved May 2, 2000 from http://www.mcrel.org/pdf/instruction/5982rr_instructionmeta_analysis.pdf

Pascarella, Ernest T. & Terenzini, Patrick T. (1991). How College Affects Students. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.